Minoriti Agama di bawah Pemerintahan Islam
Published: September 10, 2017 • Updated: September 10, 2019
Author: Dr. Tesneem Alkiek
بِسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمٰنِ الرَّحِيْمِ
In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
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2 i.e. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/15/isis-genocide-of-religious-minorities-us-house-statement
3 Bat Yeʾor, The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam (Cranbury: Associated University Presses, 1985), 36; Milka Levy-Rubin, Non-Muslims in the Early Islamic Empire: From Surrender to Coexistence (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
4 Dari sudut lain, orang-orang bukan Islam adalah majoriti yang sebenar, tetapi digelar sebagai minoriti dari segi budaya dan politik; Uriah Furman, “Minorities in Contemporary Islamist Discourse,” Middle Eastern Studies 36 (2000): 2.
5 Levy-Rubin, 41.
6 Mahmoud Ayoub, “Dhimmah in Qurʾan and Hadith,” dalam Muslims and Others in Early Islamic Society, ed. Robert Hoyland, 25-35, (Wiltshire: The Cromwell Press, 2004), 34-5. Terbitan asal The Formation of the Classical Islamic World, vol. 18, ed. Lawrence I. Conrad (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2004).
7 Berdasarkan hadis, Ibn al-Qayyim menegaskan bahawa ulama-ulama telah mencapai persetujuan bahawa golongan al-majūs, yang juga dikenali sebagai Majusi, Magians atau Zoroastrians, adalah ahli Kitab; Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzīyah, Ahkām ahl al-dhimmah, ed. Yusūf al-Bakrī dan Aḥmad al-ʿArārūri (Dammām: Dār Ramādī li-l-Nashr, 1418/1997), 79.
8 S.D. Goitein, “Minority Selfrule and Government Control” dalam Muslims and Others in Early Islamic Society, ed. Robert Hoyland (Wiltshire: The Cromwell Press, 2004), 160. Terbitan asal The Formation of the Classical Islamic World, vol. 18, ed, Lawrence I. Conrad (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2004).
9 Goitein, 163.
10 Penganiayaan yang terkenal terhadap orang Kristian yang pernah direkodkan diketuai oleh Khalifah Fatimiyyah al-Hakim yang menghentikan usahanya pada akhir pemerintahannya dan memulihkan tindakan toleransi tradisional Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, ed. P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Diakses melalui Brill Reference Online.
11 Sidney Griffith, The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque: Christians and Muslims in the World of Islam (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 148.
12 Griffith, 148.
13 Anver Emon, “Reflections on the ‘Constitution of Medina’: An Essay on Methodology and Ideology in Islamic Legal History,” UCLA Journal of Islamic and Near Eastern Law 1, no. 103 (2001), 103.
14 Ibn al-Qayyim, 14; Levy-Rubin, 59.
15 A.S. Tritton, The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects (London: Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1970), 8.
16 Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzīyah, Ahkām ahl al-dhimmah, ed. Yusūf al-Bakrī dan Aḥmad al-ʿArārūri (Dammām: Dār Ramādī li-l-Nashr, 1418/1997).
17 Ibn al-Qayyim, 14.
18 Levy-Rubin, Non-Muslims in the Early Islamic Empire, 59.
19 Albrecht Noth, “Problems of Differentiation between Muslims and non-Muslims: Re-Reading the ‘Ordinances of ʿUmar’ (Al-Shurūṭ al-ʿUmariyya)” dalam Muslims and Others in Early Islamic Society, ed. Robert Hoyland (Wiltshire: The Cromwell Press, 2004), 104-5. Terbitan asal The Formation of the Classical Islamic World, vol. 18, ed. Lawrence I. Conrad (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2004).
20 Noth, 105.
21 Ibn al-Qayyim, 87.
22 Noth, 122.
23 Noth, 115.
24 Noth, 116-7.
25 Noth, 119; See M.J. Kister, “‘Do Not Assimilate Yourselves…’Lā Tashabbahū…,” dalam Muslims and Others in Early Islamic Society, ed. Robert Hoyland, 125-153, (Wiltshire: The Cromwell Press, 2004). Terbitan asal The Formation of the Classical Islamic World, vol. 18, ed. Lawrence I. Conrad (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2004).
26 Cahen, “Dhimma.”
27 Michael Morony, “Religious Communities in Late Sasanian and Early Muslim Iraq” dalam Muslims and Others in Early Islamic Society, ed. Robert Hoyland (Wiltshire: The Cromwell Press, 2004), 1. Terbitan asal The Formation of the Classical Islamic World, vol. 18, ed. Lawrence I. Conrad (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2004).
28 Uriel I. Simonsohn, A Common Justice: The Legal Alliances of Christians and Jews under Early Islam (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 5.
29 Morony, 9.
30 Simonsohn, 10-11.
31 Morony, 13.
32 Morony, 11.
33 Neophyte Edelby, “The Legislative Autonomy of Christians in the Islamic World” dalam Muslims and Others in Early Islamic Society, ed. Robert Hoyland (Wiltshire: The Cromwell Press, 2004), 44. Terbitan asal The Formation of the Classical Islamic World, vol. 18, ed. Lawrence I. Conrad (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2004).
34 Edelby, 45.
35 Noth, “Problems of Differentiation between Muslims and Non-Muslims,” 113.
36 Noth, 107.
37 Levy-Rubin, 26.
38 Levy-Rubin, 36.
39 Levy-Rubin, 121.
40 Levy-Rubin, 116-7.
41 Morony, “Religious Communities,” 7.
42 Uriel I. Simonsohn, A Common Justice, 7; Cahen, “Dhimma.”
43 Tritton, 23.
44 Levy-Rubin, 108.
45 Tritton, 24.
46 Ramai ulama yang memberi fokus kepada peraturan minoriti agama juga dipetik. Ini termasuklah dan tidak hanya tamat disitu, Qāḍī Abū Yūṣuf (d. 183 AH) di dalam bukunya Kitāb al-kharāj, al-Khallāl (d. 311 AH) dalam Aḥkām ahl al-milal, dan al-Farrāʾ (d. 458 AH) dalam Al-Aḥkām al-Sulṭāniyyah.
47 Ibn al-Qayyim, 79.
48 Ibn al-Qayyim, 87; Ibn al-Qayyim juga telah menyatakan bahawa orang bukan Islam perlu membayar jizyah, samada ahli Kitab ataupun tidak, yang memberigambaran bahara orang-orang pagan juga boleh menyertai komuniti dhimmī; Ibn al-Qayyim, 89..
49 Ibn al-Qayyim, 122.
50 Levy-Rubin, 49.
51 Terjemahan dari Sahih International, diperoleh dari www.quran.com
52 Ibn al-Qayyim, 119; Berikut juga adalah pandangan al-Qāḍī Abu Yaʿlā dalam al-Aḥkām al-Sulṭānīyah.
53 Ibn al-Qayyim, 121.
54 Ibn al-Qayyim, 131.
55 Ibn al-Qayyim, 129.
56 Ibn al-Qayyim, 132-133.
57 Ibn al-Qayyim, 137.
58 Ibn al-Qayyim, 139.
59 Thomas Walker Arnold, Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith (London: Constable & Robinson Ltd., 1913), 61.
60 Arnold, 61.
61 David H. Warren dan Christine Gilmore, “One nation under God? Yusuf al-Qaradawi’s changing Fiqh of citizenship in the light of the Islamic legal tradition,” Contemporary Islam 8 (2014), 218.